Development and validation of the MY-VEG-FFQ: A modular web-based food-frequency questionnaire for vegetarians and vegans.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The adoption of plant-based diets in recent years has increased the need for accurate assessments of dietary intake among vegans, vegetarians, semi-vegetarians, and omnivores. This study aimed at developing and validating a modular web-based food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ), the MY-VEG-FFQ. This FFQ was based on the original FFQ (O-FFQ) designed for the Israeli population and incorporates a skip algorithm tailored for different dietary patterns. METHODS: A convenience sample of 101 participants, recruited via social media, completed the MY-VEG FFQ, as well as a three-day food records, which served as the gold standard for this research. Relative validity of the new FFQ was evaluated by comparing nutrients with those in the three-day food records, using Pearson correlation coefficients, Bland-Altman plots, and cross-classification. The results were compared with 90 O-FFQs that previously had been completed by vegans. RESULTS: The validation analysis showed that nutrient-intake estimates were generally higher for the MY-VEG-FFQ than those of the three-day food records. Pearson correlation coefficients ranged between 0.25-0.63, indicating an acceptable agreement between the two tools. The proportion of participants with exact or adjacent quartile agreement was between 73%-82%. The Bland-Altman analysis revealed overestimation of nutrient intake via the MY-VEG-FFQ. Compared to the O-FFQ, vegans who completed the MY-VEG-FFQ reported consumption of more food items. Additionally, the MY-VEG-FFQ showed a significantly higher intake of most macro- and micronutrients. CONCLUSIONS: The My-VEG-FFQ demonstrated reasonable validity in assessing dietary intake among people who followed a plant-based diet. However, it tended to overestimate nutrient intake compared to the three-day food records. The development of a modular web-based FFQ with a skip algorithm tailored for specific dietary patterns, fills a crucial gap in accurately assessing the dietary intake of these populations. The MY-VEG-FFQ offers a practical and cost-effective tool for evaluating long-term dietary consumption among people who follow different dietary patterns.

Dietary assessment and prevention of hypertension in Nigeria: Protocol for a retrospective cross-sectional study for the development and validation of a food frequency questionnaire for clinical use.

Contrary to North America and Europe, the prevalence of hypertension is rising in West Africa. With a transition from whole foods to processed foods in Nigeria, diet plays a key driver of hypertension. To combat this, the national nutritional guidelines in Nigeria were implemented, but their translation into actionable tools for clinicians remains a challenge. Currently, there are no simple dietary assessment tools that are concise and suitable to be incorporated into clinical care without requiring extensive data analysis while still providing personalised dietary support to their patients. This study aims to deliver a clinically tested and validated short dietary assessment tool for clinicians, patients, and researchers across Nigeria to provide personalised dietary advice for patients with hypertension. The study will be conducted in two phases: Phase 1 (n = 75) will investigate the feasibility of the short FFQ and its agreement with 24-hour dietary recalls (3x) in a clinical setting in Nigeria. During the analysis of Phase 1 data, a scoring system will be developed based on the associations between individual food items in the FFQ and measures of hypertension. Phase 2 (n = 50) will assess the acceptability of the FFQ and validate the association between the FFQ score and hypertension. Expected outcomes: The development of a clinically tested and validated short food frequency questionnaire that will be ready to use by clinicians, patients, and researchers across Nigeria to support the prevention and management of hypertension. This study will contribute to knowledge on dietary assessment and hypertension prevention by developing a validated and acceptable FFQ, which will be valuable for clinicians and researchers for personalised dietary recommendations to combat hypertension in Nigeria.

Reproducibility and validity of a 45 item food-frequency questionnaire for inuit in Greenland.

Since 1993, dietary assessment has been carried out in Greenland as part of recurrent population health surveys. In preparation for the next survey in 2024, 91 participants from the survey in 2018 were selected for a validation study of the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). The 91 participants were reinterviewed 38-50 months after the first FFQ and invited to complete a food diary. As part of the 2018 survey, blood was analysed for mercury. The food diary was completed by 65 participants. The agreement between the two FFQ interviews was very good for macronutrients and fatty acids (p > 0.20), whereas the calculated intake of mercury was 22% higher in the second FFQ (p = 0.04) due to a higher intake of whale meat and muktuk (whale skin). The agreement between the second FFQ and the food diary was good for local food, imported meat and cakes/sweets/snacks but fruit and vegetables, dairy products, beverages and added sugar were significantly underreported in the food diary. Food items not included in the FFQ were identified from the food diaries. The correlation between the intake of marine mammals and blood mercury was moderate (Spearman's rho = 0.41-0.50; p < 0.0001). The results will inspire future dietary studies in the circumpolar North.

Validity and reproducibility of the PERSIAN Cohort food frequency questionnaire: assessment of major dietary patterns.

BACKGROUND: Dietary patterns, encompassing an overall view of individuals' dietary intake, are suggested as a suitable means of assessing nutrition's role in chronic disease development. The aim of this study was to evaluate the validity and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) designed for use in the Prospective Epidemiological Research Studies in IrAN (PERSIAN), by comparing major dietary patterns assessed by the FFQ with a reference method. METHODS: Study participants included men and women who enrolled in the PERSIAN Cohort Study at seven of the eighteen centers. These centers were chosen to include dietary variations observed among the different Iranian ethnic populations. Two FFQ were completed for each participant over a one-year study period (FFQ1 upon enrollment and FFQ2 at the end of the study), with 24 interviewer-administered 24-hour dietary recalls (24 h) being completed monthly in between. Spearman correlation coefficients (SCC) were used comparing FFQs 1 and 2 to the 24 h to assess validity, while FFQ1 was compared to FFQ2 to assess reproducibility of the questionnaire. RESULTS: Three major dietary patterns-Healthy, Low Protein/High Carb and Unhealthy-were identified, accounting for 70% of variance in the study population. Corrected SCC ranged from 0.31 to 0.61 in the validity and from 0.34 to 0.57 in reproducibility analyses, with the first two patterns, which accounted for over 50% of population variance, correlated at above 0.5 in both parameters, showing acceptable findings. CONCLUSIONS: The PERSIAN Cohort FFQ is suitable for identification of major dietary patterns in the populations it is used for, in order to assess diet-disease relationships.

Twenty-Four-Hour Urinary Sugars Biomarker in a Vending Machine Intake Paradigm in a Diverse Population.

Accurately measuring dietary sugars intake in large-scale epidemiological studies is necessary to understand dietary sugars' true impact on health. Researchers have developed a biomarker that can be used to assess total sugars intake. Our objective is to test this biomarker in diverse populations using an ad libitum intake protocol. Healthy adult participants (n = 63; 58% Indigenous Americans/Alaska Natives; 60% male; BMI (mean ± SD) = 30.6 ± 7.6 kg.m2) were admitted for a 10-day inpatient stay. On day 2, body composition was measured by DXA, and over the last 3 days, ad libitum dietary intake was measured using a validated vending machine paradigm. Over the same days, participants collected daily 24 h urine used to measure sucrose and fructose. The 24 h urinary sucrose and fructose biomarker (24hruSF) (mg/d) represents the sum of 24 h urinary sucrose and fructose excretion levels. The association between the 3-day mean total sugars intake and log 24uSF level was assessed using the Pearson correlation. A linear mixed model regressing log-biomarker on total sugars intake was used to investigate further the association between biomarker, diet, and other covariates. Mean (S.D.) total sugars intake for the group was 197.7 g/d (78.9). Log 24uSF biomarker was moderately correlated with total sugars intake (r = 0.33, p = 0.01). In stratified analyses, the correlation was strongest in females (r = 0.45, p = 0.028), the 18-30 age group (r = 0.44, p = 0.079), Indigenous Americans (r = 0.51, p = 0.0023), and the normal BMI category (r = 0.66, p = 0.027). The model adjusted for sex, age, body fat percent, and race/ethnicity demonstrated a statistically significant association between 24uSF and total sugars intake (ß = 0.0027, p < 0.0001) and explained 31% of 24uSF variance (marginal R2 = 0.31). Our results demonstrated a significant relationship between total sugars intake and the 24uSF biomarker in this diverse population. However, the results were not as strong as those of controlled feeding studies that investigated this biomarker.

Evaluation of a digital FFQ using 24 h recalls as reference method, for assessment of habitual diet in women with South Asian origin in Norway.

OBJECTIVE: Dietary assessment tools should be designed for the target population. We developed an FFQ designed to assess diet in South Asian women in Norway. The study objective was to evaluate this FFQ using 24-h dietary recalls as reference method. DESIGN: Approximately 3 weeks after the participants (n 40) had filled in the FFQ, the first of three non-consecutive 24-h dietary recalls was completed. The recalls were telephone-based, unannounced and performed by a trained dietitian, with 2-3 weeks between each interview. SETTING: The DIASA 1 study, in Oslo, Norway. PARTICIPANTS: Women of South Asian ethnic origin participating in the DIASA 1 study were invited to participate in the evaluation study. RESULTS: The WebFFQasia significantly overestimated the absolute intake of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates compared with the 24-h dietary recalls. Absolute intakes of sugar, starch and fibre did not differ significantly between the methods. For energy percentages (E%), there were no significant differences, except for monounsaturated fat. Correlations were strong for E% from sugar and saturated fat and moderate for E% from fibre, carbohydrate, total fat and protein. Fourteen food groups out of twenty three were not significantly different compared with the reference method, and sixteen groups showed strong to moderate correlations. CONCLUSION: The WebFFQasia may be used to assess E% from habitual diet and can adequately estimate intakes and rank participants according to nutrient intake and main food categories at group level.

Validity of food and nutrient intakes assessed by a food frequency questionnaire among Chinese adults.

BACKGROUND: Studies regarding the validity of the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and the food composition table (FCT) are limited in Asian countries. We aimed to evaluate the validity of a 64-item FFQ and different methods of constructing the FFQ FCTs for assessing dietary intakes of foods and nutrients among adults in eastern China. METHODS: A total of 2325 participants (aged 56.2 ± 14.9 years, 51.6% female) from nine cities in Zhejiang province who completed a 64-item FFQ and 3-day 24-hour dietary recalls (24HRs) in 2015 were included. Eight FFQ FCTs were generated covering food items and specific weights estimated using professional knowledge, representative 24HRs data, or the Chinese FCT (CFCT). Energy-adjusted intakes of foods and nutrients were estimated by residual and energy density methods. Spearman correlation coefficients (SCCs) of intakes of 14 food groups and 17 nutrients between FFQ and 24HRs were calculated to evaluate the overall validity of FFQ. RESULTS: The average intakes of most food groups and nutrients assessed with FFQ were higher than those assessed using the 24HRs. For the food groups, the averaged energy-adjusted (residual method) SCC between FFQ and 24HRs was 0.27, ranging from 0.14 (starch-rich beans) to 0.49 (aquatic products). For nutrient assessment, the weighted FCT (WFCT) performs the best, and the averaged energy-adjusted (residual method) SCC was 0.26, ranging from 0.16 (iron) to 0.37 (potassium). Similar correlations with 24HRs were observed when using other FFQ FCT in the calculation of nutrient intakes. CONCLUSION: The 64-item Chinese FFQ and the WFCT were reasonably valid to assess the dietary intakes of certain foods and nutrients among adults in eastern China.

Use of table sugar and non-caloric sweeteners in Brazil: associated factors and changes across a decade.

This study evaluated changes in the use of sweeteners over one decade and the relationship between socio-demographics, diet and weight status with the type of sweetener. Data came from the Brazilian National Dietary Surveys of 2008-2009 and 2017-2018, including ≥ 10-year-old individuals (n 32 749; n 44 744, respectively, after excluding pregnant and lactating women). The use of table sugar, non-caloric sweeteners (NCS), both or none was reported through a specific question. Food consumption was assessed using two non-consecutive food records (2008-2009) and 24-h recalls (2017-2018). For the last survey, means of energy, macro and micronutrient intake, food groups' contribution (%) to daily energy intake and age- and energy-adjusted nutrient intake were estimated according to the type of sweetener used. Differences in means and proportions across the categories of sweeteners used were evaluated based on the 95 % CI. All analyses were stratified by sex and considered sample design and weights. Over 10 years, the use of table sugar decreased by 8 %, while the habit of not using any sweetener increased almost three times, and the use of NCS remained stable. Larger reductions in the use of table sugar were observed in the highest income level and among men. Regardless of sex, compared with NCS users, table sugar users had greater mean intake of energy, carbohydrates and added sugar and lower micronutrient intake means. Although table sugar is still the most used sweetener, the increased choice of 'no sweetener' is noteworthy in Brazil.

Towards consistency in dietary pattern scoring: standardising scoring workflows for healthy dietary patterns using 24-h recall and two variations of a food frequency questionnair.

Healthy dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet (MeDi), Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and the Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) have been evaluated for their potential association with health outcomes. However, the lack of standardisation in scoring methodologies can hinder reproducibility and meaningful cross-study comparisons. Here we provide a reproducible workflow for generating the MeDi, DASH and MIND dietary pattern scores from frequently used dietary assessment tools including the 24-h recall tool and two variations of FFQ. Subjective aspects of the scoring process are highlighted and have led to a recommended reporting checklist. This checklist enables standardised reporting with sufficient detail to enhance the reproducibility and comparability of their outcomes. In addition to these aims, valuable insights in the strengths and limitations of each assessment tool for scoring the MeDi, DASH and MIND diet can be utilised by researchers and clinicians to determine which dietary assessment tool best meets their needs.

[Evaluation of the relationship between household economic situation and food group intake in children attending nursery school].

Objectives　The relationship between household income and dietary intake among older children and adults in Japan has been studied. However, few studies have examined the relationship in younger children, and we believe that this should be taken into consideration from early childhood to correct health disparities. In this study, we examined the relationship between family income and dietary food group intake, and investigated the adequacy of food intake based on the Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top for young children aged 3 to 6 years attending nursery school. The goal of this study was to obtain trends in food intake that can be used to improve poor dietary intake of young children caused by socioeconomic factors.Methods　A dietary survey using the food weighing or recording method and a self-administered questionnaire on dietary status were conducted on two non-consecutive days, including weekdays and weekends, from October to December 2019 or 2020. The participants were 761 young children (423 boys and 338 girls) attending nursery schools in seven cities in Japan. Equivalent income was calculated from household income and the number of family members indicated in the dietary status survey. Intake of each food group and consistency with the Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top were compared in five quintiles.Results　Compared to the low equivalent income group, the high equivalent income group showed a decreasing trend in cereal intake and an increasing trend in the intake of sugar and sweeteners, green and yellow vegetables, and dairy products. The percentage of the low-income group who did not meet the definition of adequate intake using the Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top was lower for meals that include cereals and grain products, and higher for meals that include meat and fish, vegetable, milk and dairy products, and fruits.Conclusion　The lower income group had higher intake of cereals and lower intake of vegetables and fruits compared to the higher income group. This finding is similar to the results of studies in adults and older children. However, based on the Japanese Food Guide Spinning Top, >90% of young children have a diet that fall below the adequate intake of meals, including vegetable dishes and even on weekdays, which suggests a general vegetable deficiency in young children. Multifaceted support is required to address this concern, including measures to correct disparities of income and to ensure desirable nutrient intake in early childhood.

A validation study comparing energy and nutrient intake between a web-based food frequency questionnaire and a 4-d dietary record.

OBJECTIVE: Reliable assessments of dietary intake is crucial when examining associations between dietary factors and different outcomes. Today, web-based instead of paper-based food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) are common. A web-based FFQ implies a different experience (including design differences, the possibility only to show relevant questions, and automatic checks for completeness) and may capture dietary intake differently. The aim of this study was to validate a well-used paper-based FFQ transferred to a web-based version against a 4-d dietary record. METHODS: Baseline data from a dietary intervention study comprising women and men with type 2 diabetes were used. Diet was assessed with the web-based FFQ and a 4-d dietary record. Energy intake and energy-adjusted nutrient intakes were assessed and compared using Spearman's rank correlation and Bland-Altman analysis. The analysis included 101 participants. RESULTS: The average energy intake with the FFQ was 2068 kcal, 157 kcal higher than the average from the dietary record. Significant deattenuated correlations were found for intake of energy (r = 0.37; 95% confidence interval [CI],0.19-0.53), carbohydrates (r = 0.85; 95% CI, 0.78-0.89), protein (r = 0.53; 95% CI, 0.38-0.66) and fat (r = 0.59; 95% CI, 0.44-0.70). Significant deattenuated correlations (ranging r = 0.26-0.73) were found for intake of alcohol, whole grain, fiber, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, cholesterol, vitamins A, B12, C, D, and E, folate, iron, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. Bland-Altman analyses showed no clear trends but wide limits of agreement. CONCLUSION: Overall, the web-based FFQ performed well and is similar to the paper-based version. It can be a useful tool for dietary assessments.

Development and validation of a food frequency questionnaire in adult Saudi subjects in Jeddah city.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In Saudi Arabia, very limited studies have been conducted to evaluate the validity of culturally appropriate food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The aim of this study was to validate a newly designed FFQ against two reference methods in Saudi adults. METHODS: A new FFQ adapted from the Block FFQ was completed via interview and validated against three-day food records (3DFRs; n = 126) and 24-hour urinary urea nitrogen (UUN)-based protein intake estimates (n = 118) in adult Saudis living in Jeddah. FFQ-estimated nutrient intake was compared to the 3DFR and UUN methods using Pearson's correlations (r), Bland-Altman plots, and weighted kappa (κw) statistics. RESULTS: This study included 126 participants (80 females and 46 males). The FFQ generally overreported nutrient intakes compared to the reference methods. The FFQ was strongly correlated with 3DFRs for energy, protein, carbohydrate, and total fat (r > 0.7); moderately correlated with cholesterol (r = 0.55) and iron (r = 0.44); and weakly correlated with the other micronutrients (r = 0.1-0.3). A moderate positive correlation for protein intake was found (r = 0.62) between the FFQ and 24-hour UUN method. The Bland-Altman analysis indicated the FFQ had an acceptable level of agreement with no significant proportional bias (P > 0.05) with the 3DFRs for energy, protein, total fat, and iron and with protein intake. Similarly, an acceptable level of agreement was found between the FFQ and the 24-hour UUN method for estimating protein intake. Cross-classification analysis showed that ≥ 50% of participants were ranked within the same quartile for energy, protein, and total fat. The FFQ showed good agreement with the 3DFRs for energy and protein (κw ≥ 0.61) and acceptable agreement with protein intake. An acceptable agreement was reported between the FFQ and 24-hour UUN method (κw = 0.56). Separate analyses of females and males showed stronger correlations and agreements between the FFQ and the two reference methods only in females. CONCLUSION: The developed FFQ is an effective and valid tool for assessing dietary intake in Saudi adults. However, it still requires future optimization to improve its validity.

Harmonising dietary datasets for global surveillance: methods and findings from the Global Dietary Database.

OBJECTIVE: The Global Dietary Database (GDD) expanded its previous methods to harmonise and publicly disseminate individual-level dietary data from nutrition surveys worldwide. DESIGN: Analysis of cross-sectional data. SETTING: Global. PARTICIPANTS: General population. METHODS: Comprehensive methods to streamline the harmonisation of primary, individual-level 24-h recall and food record data worldwide were developed. To standardise the varying food descriptions, FoodEx2 was used, a highly detailed food classification and description system developed and adapted for international use by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Standardised processes were developed to: identify eligible surveys; contact data owners; screen surveys for inclusion; harmonise data structure, variable definition and unit and food characterisation; perform data checks and publicly disseminate the harmonised datasets. The GDD joined forces with FAO and EFSA, given the shared goal of harmonising individual-level dietary data worldwide. RESULTS: Of 1500 dietary surveys identified, 600 met the eligibility criteria, and 156 were prioritised and contacted; fifty-five surveys were included for harmonisation and, ultimately, fifty two were harmonised. The included surveys were primarily nationally representative (59 %); included high- (39 %), upper-middle (21 %), lower-middle (27 %) and low- (13 %) income countries; usually collected multiple recalls/ records (64 %) and largely captured both sexes, all ages and both rural and urban areas. Surveys from low- and lower-middle v. high- and upper-middle income countries reported fewer nutrients (median 17 v. 30) and rarely included nutrients relevant to diet-related chronic diseases, such as n-3 fatty acids and Na. CONCLUSIONS: Diverse 24-h recalls/records can be harmonised to provide highly granular, standardised data, supporting nutrition programming, research and capacity development worldwide.

Penn Healthy Diet survey: pilot validation and scoring.

Though diet quality is widely recognised as linked to risk of chronic disease, health systems have been challenged to find a user-friendly, efficient way to obtain information about diet. The Penn Healthy Diet (PHD) survey was designed to fill this void. The purposes of this pilot project were to assess the patient experience with the PHD, to validate the accuracy of the PHD against related items in a diet recall and to explore scoring algorithms with relationship to the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015 computed from the recall data. A convenience sample of participants in the Penn Health BioBank was surveyed with the PHD, the Automated Self-Administered 24-hour recall (ASA24) and experience questions. Kappa scores and Spearman correlations were used to compare related questions in the PHD to the ASA24. Numerical scoring, regression tree and weighted regressions were computed for scoring. Participants assessed the PHD as easy to use and were willing to repeat the survey at least annually. The three scoring algorithms were strongly associated with HEI-2015 scores using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017-2018 data from which the PHD was developed and moderately associated with the pilot replication data. The PHD is acceptable to participants and at least moderately correlated with the HEI-2015. Further validation in a larger sample will enable the selection of the strongest scoring approach.

Validity and Reproducibility of a Semiquantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for Measuring Intakes of Foods and Food Groups.

We evaluated the validity and reproducibility of a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for measuring intakes of 149 foods and 25 food groups among 736 participants of the Women's Lifestyle Validation Study (WLVS, 2010-2012) and 649 participants of the Men's Lifestyle Validation Study (MLVS, 2011-2013). Validity of the FFQ compared with two 7-day dietary records measured 6 months apart and the reproducibility between 2 FFQs administered 1 year apart (FFQ1 and FFQ2) were assessed using Spearman correlations and intraclass correlation coefficients. The average 1-year reproducibility of FFQ-measured foods was 0.64 in both the WLVS and MLVS. Reproducibility of the food groups (mean = 0.71 among women and 0.72 among men) was generally higher than that for individual foods. Among women, the average validity correlation for individual foods was 0.59 when comparing FFQ2 with the 7-day dietary records. Among men, the corresponding average validity correlation was 0.61. Compared with individual foods, food groups had slightly higher validity correlations in both women (range, 0.45-0.92; mean = 0.61) and men (range, 0.46-0.88; mean = 0.65). This study reaffirms that the FFQ performs well in measuring most foods and food groups and provides data to adjust for measurement errors in epidemiologic studies of foods and food groups.

Assessment of long-term dietary cadmium exposure in children in Germany: Does consideration of data from total diet studies reduce uncertainties from food monitoring programmes?

Total diet studies (TDS) and food monitoring programmes are different approaches for collecting occurrence data on substances in food. This case study evaluated the practical applicability of TDS data (BfR MEAL Study) and monitoring data for the assessment of long-term cadmium exposure in children in Germany. Cadmium data from both programmes were combined with food consumption data from the KiESEL study. Uncertainties associated with both assessments were systematically described. Using monitoring data resulted in cadmium intakes approximately 3 times higher than the use of BfR MEAL Study data. Incomplete data and neglect of market shares and consumption weights were considered by conservative data adjustments to the monitoring data and mainly explain the higher estimates. Fewer data adjustments were necessary for BfR MEAL Study data, which covered almost the entire diet and considered consumer behaviour during sample collection and sample preparation. In sum, the use of the BfR MEAL Study data resulted in less uncertainty and more reliable exposure estimates for chronic assessments over the entire diet. However, description of variability and upper tails of substance distributions in food remain essential features of monitoring data. The integration of both programmes into a complementary system further improves food safety.

Developing and validating a version of the food frequency questionnaire for young adults in a public university in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Epidemiological studies often use the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to predict the food consumption habits of a target group and subsequently promote healthy eating in the group. In the present study, a version of the FFQ for Malaysian young adults aged 18-24 years was designed and validated. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: This study comprised development and validation phases. In the development phase, 129 young adults from a public university in Klang Valley completed a 3-day food record (3DFR), and the data were used to create a food list for the FFQ. Two weeks later, in the validation phase, another 100 participants recruited from the same university completed the 3DFR and a newly developed FFQ for assessing consumption of 38 food items. Finally, the data obtained from the FFQ and 3DFR were used to analyze the nutrient intake of each participant, and the developed FFQ was validated using Spearman correla-tion coefficients (r) and Bland-Altman methods. RESULTS: For the development phase, 38 food items were determined to contribute to 90% of the participants' total energy and macronutrient intake, and these items were included on the FFQ. For the validation phase, the average Spearman correlation coefficient for energy and all nutrients was 0.43, which indicated good agreement between the 3DFR and FFQ. Cross-classification analysis of the 3DFR and FFQ results revealed that 79% of the young adults were classified into similar or neighboring quartiles when each set of results was used. The Bland-Altman plots revealed that the results obtained using the two methods were parallel. CONCLUSIONS: The FFQ is a simple and validated tool that can be self-administered to young adults to assess their energy and nutrient consumption.

Optimization of a Food List for Food Frequency Questionnaires Using Mixed Integer Linear Programming: A Proof of Concept Based on Data from the Second German National Nutrition Survey.

Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQs) are important instruments to assess dietary intake in large epidemiological studies. To determine dietary intake correctly, food lists need to be adapted depending on the study aim and the target population. The present work compiles food lists for an FFQ with Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) to minimize the number of foods in the food list. The optimized food lists were compared with the validated eNutri FFQ. The constraints of the MILP aimed to identify food items with a high nutrient coverage in a population and with a high interindividual variability. The optimization was based on data from the second German National Nutrition Survey. The resulting food lists were shorter than the one used in the validated eNutri FFQ.

Assessing the performance of national sentinel food lists at subnational levels in six countries.

OBJECTIVE: To assess how well national sentinel lists of the most frequently consumed foods in each food group capture data at subnational levels to measure minimum diet diversity (MDD). DESIGN: We analysed data from seven surveys with 24-h open dietary recalls to evaluate: (1) the percentage of reported foods that were included in each sentinel food list; (2) whether these lists captured consumption of some food groups better than others and (3) differences between estimates of dietary diversity calculated from all food items mentioned in the open 24-h recall v. only food items included in the sentinel lists. SETTING: Seven subnational areas: Bangladesh (2), Benin, Colombia, Kenya, Malawi and Nepal. PARTICIPANTS: 8094 women 15-49 years; 4588 children 6-23 months. RESULTS: National sentinel food lists captured most foods reportedly consumed by women (84 %) and children (86 %). Food groups with the highest variability were 'other fruits' and 'other vegetables.' MDD calculated from the sentinel list was, on average, 6·5 (women) and 4·1 (children) percentage points lower than when calculated from open 24-h recalls, with a statistically significant difference in most subnational areas. CONCLUSION: National sentinel food lists can provide reliable data at subnational levels for most food groups, with some variability by country and sub-region. Assessing the accuracy of national sentinel food lists, especially for fruits and vegetables, before using them at the subnational level could avoid potentially underestimating dietary diversity and provide more accurate local information for programmes, policy and research.